Indian aesthetics | Page 2 of 2 | English Literature | English Literature Zone

Indian Civilization and Culture Summary By Mahatma Gandhi | Indian Civilization By Mahatma Gandhi

Indian aesthetics, Indian Literature, Literature

Introduction

Indian Civilization and Culture is a wonderful piece of writing which is written by a great leader and a Patriotic of India Mahatma Gandhi, full name Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi. He is popularly known as Bapu or the Father of The Nation. He was born in Porbandar, Gujrat on 2 October 1869. He was more of a spiritual leader than a politician. He successfully used truth and nonviolence as the chief weapon against British Rule in India and helped India gain Independence from 1915 till 1948, he completely dominated Indian Politics. He is known for his teaching for this teaching of non-violence, brotherhood, equality, and truth.

About Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi was a great leader in India, known for his enormous achievements and unwavering commitment to social justice. He inspired people across the world to stand against exploitation and fight for freedom and led India to independence through peaceful means. Gandhi was a skilled communicator, using his mastery of the English language to write works of excellence and share his thoughts with the world. His autobiography, “My Experiment with Truth,” remains an important document of his life and philosophy.

Gandhiji On Indian Civilization

The present extract on Indian Civilization and Culture gives much emphasis on the beauty and the glory of our Indian Civilization and Culture. In this extract, the writers try to compare Indian Civilization and Culture to foreign cultures and Civilizations.

The Indian Civilization is unparalleled and can not be beaten in the world. The seeds of Indian Civilization shown by our ancestors were deep-rooted. They had developed miraculously in a big tree with many of its branches spread over the heart of India. Rome, Greece, and many other centers of ancient civilization were diminishers or no longer exist in their former glory. Gandhi ji says the human mind is like a restless bird. The more it gets the more it wants. That is why human beings remained unsatisfied. Wealth and Poverty can not be the subject of happiness and sorrow.

After making a comparison we find that Indian Culture and Civilization are far better and richer than any other Culture and Civilization in the world. Indian Culture is rich and beautiful in many aspects. It is true that the West is ahead of us in terms of discovery and Technology. It is also true that western techniques and technology gave us a lot of things to us. Western civilization has given Literature to the entire world. Mahatma Gandhi was not a hater of westernization. He too admits that we learn so many things from the West. He actually wants to suggest that we should not forget our own culture.

Mahatma Gandhi also says that learning from the west is not bad but imitating the whole thing from other cultures and civilizations may damage the infinite beauty and glory of our own culture and civilization. The diversity and pluralism of India have their strength and beauty which maintain the perfect peace and harmony among the people of different castes and religions.

Mahatma Gandhi nicely portrays the seeds of Indian Civilization as shown by our ancestors. Its foundation is so strong and nothing in the world can beat it. Many civilizations in the world were born and lost with the passage of time but Indian Civilization is unaffected and still glittering like pure ornaments. The writer is very upset when he sees the young people, who are completely dependent on the shines of materialists of the west instead of understanding the true beauty of our own culture and Civilization.

He simply suggests to the people of India that India is a treasure of knowledge and wisdom that need to be understood from its bottom to top.

Gandhiji compares modern civilization to the past one. He finds that modern civilization is based on materials. He says,

“Modern Civilization is a curse in Europe as also in India.
War is the direct result of modern civilization.”

Conclusion

Lastly, Mahatma Gandhi gives a message of living together with harmony and peace. He says that everyone has understood his own responsibility and duty towards his nation and he or she must be true, upright determined, devoted, and honest regarding their duties and responsibilities their duties and responsibilities, then only we can make this nation more glorious and more beautiful.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

Indian Civilization and Culture Summary By Mahatma Gandhi | Indian Civilization By Mahatma Gandhi Read More »

A River By A. K. Ramanujan Summary

Indian aesthetics, English Literature, Indian Literature, Literature, Poem Analysis, Poetry

Introduction

The poem “A River” is written by ‘A. K. Ramanujan’ is a great Indian English poet, professor, translator, playwright, and scholar. He wrote in both English and Kannada. He was awarded “Padma Shri” in 1976 and the “Sahitya Akademi” Award posthumously in 1999 for his literary works. Ramanujan published two volumes of Poems ‘The Striders’ and ‘The Relation’. The Poem “A River” appeared in ‘The Striders’ in 1966.

About A. K. Ramanujan

A.K. Ramanujan was a great Indian Poet, translator, and scholar of Indian Literature and linguistics. He was born in Mysore, Karnataka, to a Brahmin family that loved and encouraged learning. He was fluent in many languages including English, Kannada, and Tamil. Ramanujan was also awarded “Sahitya Akademi Award” posthumously in 1999 for “The Collected Poems”. His notable works include The Stories, Second Sight, A River, and Relations.

A River Poem Summary

“A River” poem is about a riven “Vaikai” which flows through the city of Madurai, which is situated in Tamil Nadu. It is a holy city, full of temples and poets. The poets of ancient times, as well as modern times, have written poems on this city and its temples. They have also written about the river and floods. ‘Ramanujan’ first talks about the beauty of the river and then tell how it killed people. The poem is divided into four stanzas and each stanza has a different line length.

In the first stanza poet says Madurai is the city of temples and many poets write about the beauty of the city, its temples, and its river which dries up making the sand visible. In the summer the water flows in small streams. As the water flows in small streams, the sand looks like the ‘ribs of humans’. In addition to the sand, there are straws and woman’s hair under the bridges – having rusting bars which obstruct the free flow of water. There are also wet stones which are shining and look like sleeping crocodiles and those which are dry seem to be like water buffaloes without hair relaxing in the sun.

However other poets have written only about two seasons that is summer and raining for describing their beauty. They have not brought to their verses what loss has been inflicted on the people because of the rainy seasons.

In the second stanza, the poet says that he has seen that incident when there was a flood. It also carried off three village houses, a pregnant woman, and a couple of cows which were named Gopi and Brinda. Poet further says, in the new poet and the old poets, no one ever talked about the pregnant woman.

The poet imagines that the twins were kicking at the while to escape but couldn’t and were ultimately drowned to death with their mother. The other poets never brought this tragic incident into their poems.

In the last stanza, according to the poet, the river is poetic and can be romanticized only once in a year, and then in just half an hour, it takes away 3 houses, a couple of cows, and a pregnant woman who was expecting twins having fair bodies and also was thinking of having diapers of different colours. So as to distinguish between them.

The last stanza thus compares the contrasts of the writing of the poet himself and another poet of his age. All the other poets try to praise the beauty of the river and on the other hand, the poet himself makes a balance between the beauty and the losses inflicted on the people by it.

Conclusion

Thus, the poem “A River” shows the insensitive attitude and the complete unconcern of the city poets, both the old and new, towards the tragic situation of human suffering and fatality.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

A River By A. K. Ramanujan Summary Read More »

Ancient Indian Literature | History Of Indian Classical Literature

Indian Literature, English Literature, Indian aesthetics, Literature

Introduction

Ancient Indian Literature is one of the most beautiful and voluminous to read and understand. Most of the literature was oral during the ancient period. At the beginning of the literature was transmitted orally from one person to another. There were no written records. Ancient Indian literature consists of four Vedas called ‘Rigveda’, ‘Yajur Veda’, ‘Sama Veda’, and ‘Atharva Veda’.

Ramayana And Mahabharata

Ramayana and Mahabharata are considered great Indian epic poetry of ancient times. They were originally composed in Sanskrit, but have since been translated into many languages. Ramayana is an ancient epic poem that describes the struggle of Prince Rama to release his wife Sita from the hands of the demon Ravana. The author of Ramayana is Valmiki. It is considered one of the largest epic literature in the world. It consists of 24,000 verses and 500 Sargas.

Mahabharata is an ancient epic literature that tells the story of the Bharata dynasty. The author of Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa. It consists of 100,000 verses. Some of the important moral stories in Mahabharata include ‘Bhagavad Gita’ and ‘Damayanti’.

Early Buddhist Literature

In 483 BC, the teaching of Buddha was rehearsed and validated in the first council, after which were separated into three Pitakas. The teachings of Buddha were written down in Pali. Pali is the language of the oldest Buddhist writings. Dialogues between the Buddha and his disciples make up the Sutta Pitaka. Buddhacharita is a Sanskrit text on the life of Buddha, authored by Ashvaghosha.

A number of literary works written just prior to the beginning of the Gupta age had secular characters. This period saw the development of poetry and drama. The subject of these works were majorly political events, allegories, comedies romances, and philosophical questions.

Ancient Sanskrit Literature

Ancient Sanskrit literature refers to the vast corpus of texts written in Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, over a period of more than 5,000 years. Sanskrit literature is an integral part of India’s cultural and religious heritage and includes a wide range of texts, such as hymns, epics, philosophical treatises, dramas, and poetry.

The most ancient Sanskrit texts are the Vedas, which are a collection of hymns and other religious texts that were composed between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. The Rigveda is the oldest and most important of the four Vedas, and it is considered the oldest known religious text in the world

Kalidasa is considered the greatest poet in Sanskrit literature. He wrote Raghuvansham and Kumarasambhavam along with many other works Meghadootam and Abhijnanshakntalam are the most famous plays of Kalidasa. These are some poets of Sanskrit literature and their works including,

“Banabhatta,” wrote ‘Harshacharita’, the biography of King Harsha and Kadambari.
“Bhavabhuti,” wrote ‘Uttar Ramayana’.
“Vishakadutta,” wrote ‘Mudra Rakshasa’.
“Shudraka,” wrote ‘Mriccha Katika’.
“Dandin,” wrote ‘Daskumarcharita’.

There were also a large number of philosophical literature. The most important ones are those of “Sankaracharya”.

Ancient Indian literature does not only mean the Vedas and the epics, it has much more to understand and learn from it. Ancient literature also clearly explains the duties of a person and how a person shows in character. There were Shastra who dealt with science and math. Kautilya’s “Arthashastra” deals with governance and economic policy which is written in Sanskrit.

Conclusion

Now we can say that Ancient Indian Literature contributed greatly to the development of Indian English literature. India has a rich cultural heritage. The progress of humanity in the past is the subject matter of history. In order to understand the present we have to trace back its roots to Ancient India. Ancient Indian Literature is the most beautiful and complicated to read and understand. The Vedas, the Shastras, and the Upanishads help human being to develop their character and lead a good life.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

Ancient Indian Literature | History Of Indian Classical Literature Read More »

Grimm’s Law | Grimm’s Law Examples

Indian aesthetics, English Literature, Literature

“Grimm’s Law” is discovered by the great German linguist Jacob Grimm, who was a Philo gist, jurist, and folklorist. His full name was Jacob Ludwing Karl Grimm.”

Grimm’s Law

It shows the systematic relation between consonants in other Indo-European languages stating what phonetic changes took place. It also shows that changes in a language and groups of languages come about gradually and not as a result of random word changes. This change was first formulated as a law by one German philologist named Jacob Grimm in 1822. The law formula led by Grimm has been named after him and is hence familiarly known in the History of English as ‘Grimm’s Law.’

Grimm discovered certain correspondences between some consonant sounds occurring in the words of classical languages like Sanskrit Latin and Greek and those of Teutonic languages like English and Gothic. Grimm stated that there is the regular shifting of a particular series of Indo-Germanic consonant sounds in Teutonic. To illustrate these sound shifting we can take words from the classical language like Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek as representative of the Indo-European consonant system that is best preserved in these languages. Words from old English modern English or Gothic may be taken to represent the Teutonic Sound.

On the basis of change, we can divide it into three parts

Indo-European voiced aspirated stop sounds ‘bh’, ‘gh’, and ‘dh’, become shifted in Teutonic to corresponding voiced stop sounds ‘b’, ‘g’, and ‘d’ that means:-
Indo-European voiced aspirated stops sounds ‘bh’ becomes Teutonic ‘b’.

Example –

Indo-European (Sanskrit)	Modern English (Teutonic)
Bharata	Brother

Again Indo European ‘gh’ becomes Teutonic ‘g’

Example –

Indo-European (Sanskrit)	Modern English (Teutonic)
Stigh	Stig

Again Indo European ‘dh’ becomes Teutonic ‘d’

Example –

Indo-European (Sanskrit)	Modern English (Teutonic)
Madhya	Middle

The Indo-European voice stop sounds ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘g’ are shifted in Teutonic to the corresponding voiceless sounds ‘p’, ‘t’, and ‘k’ that means: –
Indo-European ‘b’ becomes Teutonic ‘p’

Example-

Indo-European	Gothic
Lurbricus	Sliupan

Indo-European‘ d’ becomes Teutonic ‘t’

Example –

Sanskrit	English
Svadu	Sweet

Again Indo-European ‘g’ becomes Teutonic ‘k’

Example –

Latin	Gothic	Modern English
Gelu	Kalds	Cold

Indo-European voiceless stops sounds ‘p’, ‘t’, and ‘k’ become shifted in Teutonic to the corresponding voiceless open sounds ‘f’, ‘th’, and ‘h’
Indo-European ‘p’ becomes Teutonic ‘f’

Example –

Sanskrit	English
Pita	Father
Pancha	Five

Indo-European‘ t’ becomes Teutonic ‘th’

Example –

Sanskrit	English
Pita	Father

Another example –

Latin	English
Tres	Three

Indo-European ‘k’ becomes Teutonic ‘h’

Example –

Latin	English
Canis	Hand

Grimm’s Law, however, did not operate under certain circumstances.

If Indo-European ‘p’ or ‘k’ happened to be followed by ‘t’ the ‘t’ remained unchanged so that from the combination of ‘pt’, and ‘kt’ we have in Teutonic ‘ft’, and ‘ht’. Again by an ‘s’ in Indo-European, the combinations remained unchanged in Teutonic.

Example –

Sanskrit	Old English
Stigh	Stingh

These shifts are not random but follow a consistent pattern across the Germanic language family, affecting the initial consonants of words and leading to the distinct sounds we recognize in languages such as English, German, Dutch, and the Scandinavian languages.

The significance of Grimm’s Law lies in its demonstration that sound change follows specific patterns, challenging the previously held belief that such changes were sporadic and unpredictable. The discovery of these patterns has provided linguists with a framework for understanding the historical development of languages and tracing their ancestral roots.

Grimm’s Law also paved the way for further linguistic research, including Verner’s Law, which addressed exceptions to Grimm’s Law by explaining variations due to accentual patterns in Proto-Germanic languages. Together, these laws offer a fascinating glimpse into the mechanisms of language change and the interconnectedness of the Indo-European language family.

Conclusion

Grimm’s Law serves as a crucial piece of the puzzle in unravelling the history of the Germanic languages. It showcases the intricate process of language evolution and the profound impact of phonetic shifts on the development of modern languages. As we continue to study and appreciate the complexities of linguistic change, Grimm’s Law remains a fundamental concept that highlights the systematic nature of language and its capacity for transformation over time.

Thus, we see that after the formulation of Grimm’s law, it was found that there were certain apparent exceptions to it. In a pair of words like Latin ‘Centum’ and hundreds the correspondence between the ‘c’ (k) and ‘h’ was according to Grimm’s Law – but, there was no such correspondence between the ‘t’ of certain and ‘d’ of hundred.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

Literature Notes

– Varsha SIngh

Grimm’s Law | Grimm’s Law Examples Read More »

Natyashastra and Rasa Theory | Type Of Rasa | Rasa Theory | Natyashastra Critical Analysis

Literature, Indian aesthetics, Indian Literature

Introduction:

“The Natyashastra” is the world’s oldest treatise on performing art. It is more than 2500 years old. Many scholars believe that the author of Natyashastra is “Bharatmuni”. It has been given the status of 5^th Veda. It contains ancient Indian treaties on performing arts that is theatre, music, and dance.

This book was written in the form of dialogues between sage Bharata and other sages. It was compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD. It contains 36000 shlokas in verse style. There are a total of 36 chapters in it. There is a general misconception that drama, theatre, and music are western gifts to India. Manmohan Ghosh and Rangachara translated Natyasastra into English. In Indian aesthetics, a rasa (Sanskrit: रस) literally means “nectar, essence or taste”.

About Author:

There is not much information about the author of ‘Natyashastra’. Many scholars believe that the author of Natyashastra is ‘Rishi Bharata’ also known as Bharatmuni. Still, it is a matter of discussion for scholars whether Bharat Muni is the writer or compiler of the Natyashastra.

About Natyashastra:

Natyashastra is based on the much older Gandharva Veda.
It is believed that Rishi Bharata collected different knowledge, wisdom, and experience from the four Veda and compiled it into one book named Natyashastra. The Natyashastra consists of four elements of text taken from ‘Rig- Veda’ songs from the Sama-Veda acting from the ‘Yajur-Veda’ and rasa or aesthetic experience from the ‘Atharva-Veda’.

In the first chapter of Natyashastra talk about the response and involvement of the spectators in the drama. The second chapter describes the method of building different types of stages. The third chapter talks about the religious ceremony to be performed in the auditorium. The fourth chapter tells the story of Amritmanthana. Various aspects related to dance and music have been discussed in fourth and the fifth chapters. The only two dance styles that have their origin in Bharata’s Natyashastra are Bharatanatyam and Odissi.

Type Of Rasa

In the sixth chapter, Bharat Muni has given special emphasis on Rasas and discusses the nature of rasas. In this chapter, he talked about the process by which different types of rasas are generated. According to Bharata Muni, there are nine types of rasas and he identified specific colours, emotions, and deities for the Rasas as shown in the table.

Sr. No.	Rasa	Emotion	Colours	Deities
1.	Shringar	Delight / Love	Pale Light green	Lord Vishnu
2.	Hasya	Laugh	White	Pramuthus
3.	Karuna	Sorrow	Grey	Rudra
4.	Raudra	Anger	Red	Yama
5.	Veera	Heroism	Pale Orange	Shiva-mahakala
6.	Bhayanaka	Fear	Black	Kala
7.	Bibhastsa	Disgust	Blue	Indra
8.	Adbhuta	Wonder	Yellow	Brahma
9.	Shanta	Peace	White

Natyashastra and Rasa Theory Structure

(1) Shringara Rasa (Erotic Sentiments):

The Shringara Rasa proceeds from the dominant state of love and is associated with the Lord Vishnu. Love is found not only between man and woman but also between man and woman but also birds, animals, and other creatures. It should be represented on the stage by the consequents of eyes, eyebrows, soft, and delicate movements of the body, sweetness, words, and similar other things. Kalidasa in the scene of the union of Shakuntala and Dushyant at that time write the best example of Shringara Rasa.

(2) Hasya Rasa (Comic Sentiments):

The Hasya Rasa means laughter tension and worries. It is broadly classified into two types – Atmastha is the self-laughter where one is laughing at oneself while Parastha is making others laugh. The best example of Hasya Rasa is “Tarak Mehta Ka Ulta Chasma”. It creates big laughter among the audience. It shows both types of laughter.

(3) Karuna Rasa (Pathetic Sentiments):

The Karuna Rasa arises from the dominant state of sorrow. It is usually presented through separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death, accident, or any type of misfortune. The best example of karuna Rasa is – ‘Abhigyan Shakuntalam’ the separation of Shakuntala and Dushyant due to a curse, it generates paths.

(4) Rudra Rasa (Furious Sentiments):

Rudra Rasa refers to the “furious sentiment” or the “Sentiment of Anger” used in dramatic performance. To portray this rasa, the actor keeps his eyes wide open, his eyelids flatter and his eyebrows lifted up. Red eyes, Knitting of eyebrows, biting of lips, restlessness, and trembling are the best expressions for Rudra Rasa. An example of Rudra Rasa is – ‘Amba and her Anger’.

(5) Veera Rasa (Heroic Sentiments):

The Veera Rasa reflects the superior type of person and has the energy or enthusiasm has its basic. In the Character of Mahabharata, such as – Karana, Yudhishthira, and Arjuna, we can find ‘Veera Rasa’.

(6) Bhayankar Rasa (Terrible Sentiments):

The Bhayankara Rasa has its dominant state of fear. It is usually created by fearful atmospheres like hideous, noise, side of ghost panic, and anxiety. In many horror movies, we found Bhayanka Rasa. When Rama was in the forest and fighting with “Rakshasa” at that time we fell “Bhaya”.

(7) Bibhastya Rasa (Odious Sentiments):

The Bibhastya Rasa has its basic dominant state of disguise. It is created by determinants like hearing unpleasant, offensive, impure, and harmful things or singing them or discussing them. For example – When Prince Siddhartha was a young man and for the first time he saw sickness, old age, and death, he was moved to disgust which later translate into sorrow, deep introspection and peace as he transformed into Gautama, “The Buddha”.

(8) Adhbuta Rasa (Marvellous Sentiments):

Adbhuta Rasa deals with wonder. It is the sentiments of mystery astonishment and curiosity. It should be recognized through special features such as – marvelous statements, conduct, actuary, etc. For example – the glory of a king returning from a successful battle, and the magical feats of a god are both Adbhuta for a common man.

Conclusion:

Thus the combination called Natyashastra is a mixture of races, bhavas, abhinayas, dharmas, vrittis, pravrttis, svaras, etc. There are many topics described in Natyashastra and their finer details are given. It shows how well-developed art was right from the ancient period.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

Tags: natyashastra pdf, natyashastra book, 3rd chapter of natyashastra, 36 chapters of natya shastra, natyashastra pronunciation, natyashastra summary, summary of bharata munis natyashastra

Natyashastra and Rasa Theory | Type Of Rasa | Rasa Theory | Natyashastra Critical Analysis Read More »