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Natyashastra and Rasa Theory | Type Of Rasa | Rasa Theory | Natyashastra Critical Analysis

Literature, Indian aesthetics, Indian Literature

Introduction:

“The Natyashastra” is the world’s oldest treatise on performing art. It is more than 2500 years old. Many scholars believe that the author of Natyashastra is “Bharatmuni”. It has been given the status of 5^th Veda. It contains ancient Indian treaties on performing arts that is theatre, music, and dance.

This book was written in the form of dialogues between sage Bharata and other sages. It was compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD. It contains 36000 shlokas in verse style. There are a total of 36 chapters in it. There is a general misconception that drama, theatre, and music are western gifts to India. Manmohan Ghosh and Rangachara translated Natyasastra into English. In Indian aesthetics, a rasa (Sanskrit: रस) literally means “nectar, essence or taste”.

About Author:

There is not much information about the author of ‘Natyashastra’. Many scholars believe that the author of Natyashastra is ‘Rishi Bharata’ also known as Bharatmuni. Still, it is a matter of discussion for scholars whether Bharat Muni is the writer or compiler of the Natyashastra.

About Natyashastra:

Natyashastra is based on the much older Gandharva Veda.
It is believed that Rishi Bharata collected different knowledge, wisdom, and experience from the four Veda and compiled it into one book named Natyashastra. The Natyashastra consists of four elements of text taken from ‘Rig- Veda’ songs from the Sama-Veda acting from the ‘Yajur-Veda’ and rasa or aesthetic experience from the ‘Atharva-Veda’.

In the first chapter of Natyashastra talk about the response and involvement of the spectators in the drama. The second chapter describes the method of building different types of stages. The third chapter talks about the religious ceremony to be performed in the auditorium. The fourth chapter tells the story of Amritmanthana. Various aspects related to dance and music have been discussed in fourth and the fifth chapters. The only two dance styles that have their origin in Bharata’s Natyashastra are Bharatanatyam and Odissi.

Type Of Rasa

In the sixth chapter, Bharat Muni has given special emphasis on Rasas and discusses the nature of rasas. In this chapter, he talked about the process by which different types of rasas are generated. According to Bharata Muni, there are nine types of rasas and he identified specific colours, emotions, and deities for the Rasas as shown in the table.

Sr. No.	Rasa	Emotion	Colours	Deities
1.	Shringar	Delight / Love	Pale Light green	Lord Vishnu
2.	Hasya	Laugh	White	Pramuthus
3.	Karuna	Sorrow	Grey	Rudra
4.	Raudra	Anger	Red	Yama
5.	Veera	Heroism	Pale Orange	Shiva-mahakala
6.	Bhayanaka	Fear	Black	Kala
7.	Bibhastsa	Disgust	Blue	Indra
8.	Adbhuta	Wonder	Yellow	Brahma
9.	Shanta	Peace	White

Natyashastra and Rasa Theory Structure

(1) Shringara Rasa (Erotic Sentiments):

The Shringara Rasa proceeds from the dominant state of love and is associated with the Lord Vishnu. Love is found not only between man and woman but also between man and woman but also birds, animals, and other creatures. It should be represented on the stage by the consequents of eyes, eyebrows, soft, and delicate movements of the body, sweetness, words, and similar other things. Kalidasa in the scene of the union of Shakuntala and Dushyant at that time write the best example of Shringara Rasa.

(2) Hasya Rasa (Comic Sentiments):

The Hasya Rasa means laughter tension and worries. It is broadly classified into two types – Atmastha is the self-laughter where one is laughing at oneself while Parastha is making others laugh. The best example of Hasya Rasa is “Tarak Mehta Ka Ulta Chasma”. It creates big laughter among the audience. It shows both types of laughter.

(3) Karuna Rasa (Pathetic Sentiments):

The Karuna Rasa arises from the dominant state of sorrow. It is usually presented through separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death, accident, or any type of misfortune. The best example of karuna Rasa is – ‘Abhigyan Shakuntalam’ the separation of Shakuntala and Dushyant due to a curse, it generates paths.

(4) Rudra Rasa (Furious Sentiments):

Rudra Rasa refers to the “furious sentiment” or the “Sentiment of Anger” used in dramatic performance. To portray this rasa, the actor keeps his eyes wide open, his eyelids flatter and his eyebrows lifted up. Red eyes, Knitting of eyebrows, biting of lips, restlessness, and trembling are the best expressions for Rudra Rasa. An example of Rudra Rasa is – ‘Amba and her Anger’.

(5) Veera Rasa (Heroic Sentiments):

The Veera Rasa reflects the superior type of person and has the energy or enthusiasm has its basic. In the Character of Mahabharata, such as – Karana, Yudhishthira, and Arjuna, we can find ‘Veera Rasa’.

(6) Bhayankar Rasa (Terrible Sentiments):

The Bhayankara Rasa has its dominant state of fear. It is usually created by fearful atmospheres like hideous, noise, side of ghost panic, and anxiety. In many horror movies, we found Bhayanka Rasa. When Rama was in the forest and fighting with “Rakshasa” at that time we fell “Bhaya”.

(7) Bibhastya Rasa (Odious Sentiments):

The Bibhastya Rasa has its basic dominant state of disguise. It is created by determinants like hearing unpleasant, offensive, impure, and harmful things or singing them or discussing them. For example – When Prince Siddhartha was a young man and for the first time he saw sickness, old age, and death, he was moved to disgust which later translate into sorrow, deep introspection and peace as he transformed into Gautama, “The Buddha”.

(8) Adhbuta Rasa (Marvellous Sentiments):

Adbhuta Rasa deals with wonder. It is the sentiments of mystery astonishment and curiosity. It should be recognized through special features such as – marvelous statements, conduct, actuary, etc. For example – the glory of a king returning from a successful battle, and the magical feats of a god are both Adbhuta for a common man.

Conclusion:

Thus the combination called Natyashastra is a mixture of races, bhavas, abhinayas, dharmas, vrittis, pravrttis, svaras, etc. There are many topics described in Natyashastra and their finer details are given. It shows how well-developed art was right from the ancient period.

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Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

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New Criticism in literature | 20th Century Criticism | Modern Criticism

Critics, English Literature, Literature

Introduction:

The New Criticism was a formalist Movement in literary theory that dominated American literary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading, particularly poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential, aesthetic object. The movement delivered its from ‘John Crowe Ransoms’ 1941 book “The New Criticism”. The method of New Criticism is a close reading and concentrates on such a formal aspects as rhythm, theme, imaginary metaphor, etc.

The meaning of new criticism is to analyze and find the meaning within Literature by utilizing just the text, rather than considering any influence or intentions of the author or the historical and cultural background might have had on the work. This theory focuses on the idea that the true meaning can be found in the text. The foundation of the New Criticism was laid in the books and essays written between 1920 and 1930 by J. A. Richard (practical criticism) T. S. Eliot (The Function of Criticism). The approach was significantly developed, late however by a group of American poets and critics including John Crowe Ransom, Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren, and William K. Wimsatt.

Chief Exponent of New Criticism:

I. A. Richards

Ivor Armstrong Richards together with Eliot is the most influential critic in the 20th century Anglo American criticism. He has been considered the father of new criticism. Among the modern I. A. Richard is the only critic who has formulated a systematic and complete theory of literary art. His reputation as a critic in a limited number of the critical books he wrote, his first book The Foundation of Aesthetics written in collaboration with his two friends.

In the book, the authors have tried to define beauty by studying its effect on readers. His second book The Meaning of Meaning was written with Ogden, it distinguished between the symbolic use of language in Science and its emotionally used in poetry. Practical Criticism is based on his lecture room experiments conducted in Cambridge.

“The quality of a good critic is three, says I. A. Richard”

(i) A critic must be adept at experiencing without eccentricities, the state of mind relevant to the work of art.
(ii) Critic must be able to distinguish experiences from one another as regards their less superficial features
(iii) Critic must be a sound judge of value.
Richard himself poses their qualities. He did a great service to literacy criticism by linking it with psychology.

TS Eliot

Tradition and individual talent are one of the more well-known works that Eliot produced in his critique capacity. This essay was first published in The Egoist (1919), and later in Eliot’s first book of criticism, The Sacred wood (1920). In his essay Hamlet and his problem, he uses the phrase Objective Correlative. It describes how emotions are best expressed in poetry and it is a part of his theory e of impersonality concentrating not on the poet but the poetry Eliot’s insistence on the fact, that poetry must be impersonal greatly influenced the formation of New Criticism.

John Crowe Ransome

John Crowe Ransom was an American educator, scholar, critic, poet, essayist, and editor. He is considered to be the founder of New Criticism. He says that Critics must study literature, not about literature. In new criticism propose the following ideas: –
◽ Text becomes the focus of the close reading.
◽ The analysis of a text has to be scientific and precise.
Personal historical, moral, and biographical details around a text are all rejected in the field of New Criticism.

Cleanth Brooks

Cleanth Brooks was an influential American teacher and critic, whose work was important in establishing the new criticism, which stressed close reading and Structural Analysis of literature.

William Kurtz Wimsatt

William Kurtz Wimsatt was also an American professor of English literary theorists and critics. Wimsatt is often associated with a discussion of intentional fallacy which he developed with Monrac Beardsley in order to discuss the importance of an author’s intention with the creation of a work of art.

Intentional Fallacy is the mistake of attempting to understand the author’s intentions when interpreting a literary work. Such an approach is fallacious because the meaning of a work should be contained solely within the work itself, and attempts to understand the author’s it intention wallet violate the autonomy of the work.

Robert Penn Warren

Robert Penn Warren was an American poet, novelist, and literary critic. He was one of the founders of new criticism. Along with Cleanth Brooks, he was also known as the leading representative of New Criticism and his works helped revolutionize the teaching of literature by bringing New Criticism into America’s College classroom.

Conclusion:

Thus, New Criticism focused on the purity of text and purity of the act of reading and analyzing without bothering about historical or political perspectives around the text. To apply New Criticism, a critic must look only at the text of a work of literature and can find its meaning by looking at the themes, structures, and literary devices present. New Criticism takes the idea of text as an isolated cerebral process away from politics, morality, history, etc.

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– Varsha Singh

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French Borrowing Words and French Loan Words

French Borrowing Words & French Loan Words | French loan Words In English Literature

Literature, English Literature

Introduction:

There are several countries in the world and most countries have their own language but they are taken lots of words from their neighboring countries likewise the English language is a language that has debts lots of its words from different countries. All these words are called Loan words as well as Borrowing words. In English, these words have come from French, Latin, Greek, Spanish, American language, and Italian. Words that have come into the English language from French are known as French Loan words.

Historical Background:

The history of the English language is usually divided into four significant periods. It can be classified both on the basis of linguistic differences and on the basis of Historical events that influenced the development of the English language.

SN	English	Period	Influences From
1	Old English	450 – 1100 AD	Celtic, Latin, Greek, Anglo-Saxan (Germane)
2	Middle English	1100 – 1500	Scandinavian and French
3	Early Modern English	1500 – 1700	French, Latin, Greek
4	Modern English	1700 – Present	Spanish, American, Italian, etc.

Historical Period Influenced by English

English has been influenced by many languages such as French Latin Greek and Scandinavian. The Norman people brought the French language into English literature. English has been influenced by the French loan words, mainly in Middle English and early modern English period. French loan words are different from the other loan from the same period. They refer to the law, arts, science, food, medicine, agriculture, sport, fashion, etc. Because of its extent, it is one of the most interesting foreign influences on the English language.

According to different sources 45% of all English words a French origin. French loan words began to enter the English language during the period of Middle English, but the evidence in writing can be found in Early modern English. The loan words were recorded long after they came in use because it took some time before they entered standard English. French loan words are varied and simple as opposed to Latin and Scandinavian loan words. They exist around 7000 French words in the English language at the present.

Example of French loan words in English:

◽ Some English words that came from French society that is connected to law such as advocate, bail, lawyer, Court, judgment, client, punishment, jail, plea, etc.
◽ There are several words related to science and technology which comes from French example such as physics, practical, experiment, guns, missile, bullet, bomb, gravity, motion, etc.
◽ There are lots of words in the English language related to education that has come from French society such as uniform, classroom, language, literature, University, certificate, Degree, College, tuition, etc.

◽ There are several words connected to art, music, and literature which come from French society such as Dance, singer, stage, guitar, piano, audience, poem, poet, prose, poetry, drama, novel, essay, period, era, novelist, etc.
◽ There are several words connecting to food and medicine that have come from French society such as rice, bread, grain, field, vegetables, dinner, breakfast, food, tea, sugar, tea, leaves, medicine, doctor, patients, etc.

◽ Words related to agriculture that came from French society such as plant, tree, water, field, worker, work, etc.
◽ There are following words which connected to Fashion and decoration have come from French society as cream, shoes, powder, sleepers, mirror, comb, cosmetics, etc.

Conclusion

Thus now we can say that we cannot even imagine the English language without French loan words. Even today after so many years we can still see the evidence of French influence in English. Besides there above-mentioned words, there are also many words related to Geography, military, terms, clothing, novel, and titles that come from French in English. So, it is clear that French loan words have had a significant impact on the development of the English language. There is no doubt that to say that the English language is indebted to there above-mentioned French loan words.

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– Varsha Singh

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I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings Summary & Analysis | I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings Poem Explanation

Poetry, Literature, Poem Analysis

I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings Poem

A free bird leaps
on the back of the wind
and floats downstream
till the current ends
and dips his wing
in the orange sun rays
and dares to claim the sky.

But a bird that stalks
down his narrow cage
can seldom see through
his bars of rage
his wings are clipped and
his feet are tied
so he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings
with a fearful trill
of things unknown
but longed for still
and his tune is heard
on the distant hill
for the caged bird
sings of freedom.

The free bird thinks of another breeze
and the trade winds soft through the sighing trees
and the fat worms waiting on a dawn bright lawn
and he names the sky his own.

But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams
his shadow shouts on a nightmare scream
his wings are clipped and his feet are tied
so he opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings
with a fearful trill
of things unknown
but longed for still
and his tune is heard
on the distant hill
for the caged bird
sings of freedom.

Introduction

“I know why the caged bird sings” is one of the most acclaimed poetic pieces which is written by prominent African American poet Maya Angelou. It was published in 1969 and after the publication of this book, she was respected as a spokesperson for Black people and women and her works have been considered a defense of Black Culture. In this poem, the poetess describes the experience of two different Birds one free and another caged.

It is the first of seven autobiographical works of the poetess. The poetess talks about Black authors and poets. She always felt that her literary works were not given too much importance because of the color of her skin. Although African-American people were free at that time still there were many restrictions on them in society and many black Americans didn’t feel free at all. Angelou also felt restricted from enjoying the freedom that had been her right as a human being.

About the Poetess

Maya Angela is one of the foremost 20th-century African American writers. She was a writer, poetess, activist, singer-composer, and actor. During her 50 years literary carrier, she published 7 autobiographies 3 books of essays and several books of poetry. She also received dozens of awards for her work.

Angelou is best known for her series of seven autobiographies which focus on her childhood and early adult experience. Among her world-famous works include “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, On the Pulse of Morning, I shall not Be Moved and Shaker Why Don’t You Sing.” I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings tells about her life up to 17. Her works are widely used in schools and Universities worldwide, although her books have been banned from some U.S. libraries.

Major Theme

There are two major themes in the poem. The first major theme is Freedom. It is presented through the image of a free bird. The second theme is Captivity which cripples the birds in the cage. Another important themes are voices against Injustice and Racism.

Structure and Form of this Poem

The poem has 38 lines which are divided into six stanzas. There is no particular form of this poem, it is written in free verse. This means there are no single rhyme schemes for the metrical pattern that Unite all the lines.

Explanation of the Poem

In the first stanza of the poem spectacles a free bird, who is fearlessly souring with the winds through the sky. It is the time of sunset and the orange rays of the sun colour the sky in a beautiful shade. The stanza unfolds a bird flying carefree along the wind in the sky, enjoying nature’s beauty and claiming the sky to be her possession. The poet has alluded to the aura of Freedom as a delightful experience.

The second and third stanza shows a caged bird whose wings are clipped and whose feet are tied preventing him from flying away. The bird can seldom see from the bars of rage and he can hardly get a glimpse of the sky which makes him angry. He longs to be freed from his sorrowful life in the cage. He is helpless so only opens his mouth to sing the song of freedom. The bird is shown to be afraid but still, that fear doesn’t affect his singing and he continues to sing with a thrill. His cry for freedom to be free from the clutches of the cage is heard far and wide.

The fourth standard again takes us to the life of a free bird where he makes a flight with the breeze and fearlessly claims the entire sky to be his own. He can freely find his food in the garden. On the contrary, the fifth stanza depicts the sorrowful caged bird with his dead or suppress dreams. Being in utter restriction he cries out like someone who has had a Nightmare. Under the helplessness in the captivity of the cage, the bird only opens his throat to sing.

The final stanza is a repetition of the third stanza that again emphasizes the captive bird. His longing for freedom is so intense that is the reason his cries and heard far and wide. In other words, the poet seeks to draw the attention of the readers toward the downtrodden African-Americans and their experiences. The free bird stands as a metaphor for the white people and the caged bird stands for black Americans, who would continue to fight against discrimination and struggle for freedom which is their birthright.

Conclusion

Thus after reading and analyzing this poem we can say that ‘I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings‘ by Maya Angelou has described the comparison of the life of a free bird (white American people) and a caged bird (black American people). Angelou wrote this poem about the contacts of struggle of African Americans at the time when they were forced into slavery. But at the end of this poem, the poetess has hope that this situation will change someday.

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– Varsha Singh

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War Poetry In English Literature | Fight during World War 1st | War Poets

Poetry, Analysis, English Literature, Literature, Poets

Introduction

” War Poetry” is a literary genre that developed during the period of the First World War. It is the shadow of brutal life among the soldiers during the “First World War”. The war poets were mostly young men who volunteered or were conscripted to fight in the trenches of the Western Front. The war poets wrote their poetry to raise the question of either life or death; National pride or own existence; duty Or guilt; courage or cowardness.

The war poets or Trench poets are known as “Anti-war poets” because the soldier cum poets do not show war’s gravity but the war’s futility. They witnessed the horrors of modern warfare, such as gas attacks, shell shock, machine guns, barbed wire, mud, and rats. they also experienced the boredom, futility, and disillusionment of life in the trenches. Some of them died in battle, while others survived with physical and psychological scars.

Broadly speaking Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’ or Ancient ‘Beowulf’ are mainly concerned with battles and heroism and thus regarded the war poem. But our immediate concern is war poetry in the 1920s which is notable for the sea change in attitude. In contrast to the romantic attitude to war as a glorious occasion for showing patriotism and heroism.

The theme of ‘War Poetry’

Randall Jarrell coined the term in his essay “The Literature of War.” Jarrell defines war poetry as a poem that has its theme of war and is written during or about war.

◽ The loss of innocence
◽ Brotherhood and Relationship
◽ The Horror of War
◽ Disillusionment with Religion
◽ Destruction of Nature
◽ Irrationality of War
◽ Emotional and Feelings

Purpose of ‘War Poetry’

◽ Poetry is the best way to express someone’s emotion and expression during the war.
◽ Another main reason for writing war poetry is to show the true picture of the war.
◽ It creates a sense of honor.

Characteristics of War Poetry

◽ It uses gruesome and showing imagery.
◽ It signed a break-off from the contemporary poetic tradition.
◽ Realistic document of war with all its brutality.

most prominent Anti-War poets

The war poets used poetry as a way of expressing their feelings and opinions about the war. They also questioned the authority and morality of those who started and continued the war.

There is a list of the most prominent Anti-War poets, who were involved directly in the war and eye-witnessed to see the brutality in the name of National pride on the battlefield:

◽ Wilfred Owen
◽ Siegfried Sassoon
◽ Robert Graves
◽ Issac Rosenberg
◽ Rupert Brooke
◽ Edward Thomas

Wilfred Owen ( 1893 – 1918 )

Owen was one of the most prominent Anti-War poets during the First World War as well as a soldier. He wrote only five poems published in his Lifetime but the most important poems are published posthumously. Futility, Strange Meeting, Anthem for Doomed Youth, Dulce et Decorum Est, and Insensibility are his most important poem. In his poem, he showed the terror of trenches, the pitiful shadow of soldiers’ lives. He wrote about War poems in the preface to the Edition:

“This book is not about heroes.
Nor is it about deeds or lands
nor anything about glory, honour
might, majesty, dominion, or power, except war.
My subject is war, and the pity of war.”

Siegfried Sassoon (1886 – 1967 )

War poetry is not complete without the work of ‘Siegfried Sasson’ who was awarded the Queen’s Medal for poetry in 1957. He was not only a poet but also a soldier. He shook the literary world to write his angry and compassionate poems about First World War. Sassoon wrote of the horror and brutality of trench warfare and ironically criticized those men who were blind supporters of a brutal war. The Hero, Counter-Attack, The Death Bed, Attack, Memorial Tablet, Banishmen, and The Last Meeting are the most important poems written by him. He wrote in his poem ‘Trench Duty’ about the extreme situation of the soldiers.

Robert Graves (1895 – 1985 )

Robert Graves was a great British writer, poet, and novelist. He served as a captain in the First World War. He was a good friend of Siegfried Sasson. He was badly wounded in the First world war and reported dead but he returns a few months later. Among his world-famous war poem include “Goodbye to All That” and “The White Goddess”.

Issac Rosenberg (1890 – 1918 )

Rosenberg is known for his “Trench Poem” written between 1916 and 1918. He was only 28 when he died. He was killed while fighting in the First World War. Among his world-famous war poems included ‘Break of Day in the Trenches’, ‘Dead Man’s Dump’, ‘In the Trenches’ and ‘On Receiving News of the War.’

Rupert Brooke ( 1887 – 1915 )

Brooke was an English poet known for his Idealistic war sonnets written during the first world war, especially The Soldier. He was also known for his good look. W. B. Yeats described him as ‘The most handsome young man in England’. The Great, The Dead, Lover, Heaven, Peace, and Cloud Safety are his most prominent poem.

Edward Thomas ( 1878 – 1917 )

He is commonly considered a war poet. His poem ‘The Pity of the War to Aftermath’ reflects his changing attitude to the war. His most prominent poems are Owl When First, The Owl is a poem which shows the mental depression, grief, disgust, and panic of the brutal war.

The war poets had profoundly impacted the literary and cultural landscape of their time and beyond. Their poems challenged the prevailing attitudes and propaganda about war and revealed its true nature and consequences. Their poems also influenced the development of modernism and realism in literature and art. Their poems also inspired generations of readers and writers who faced or witnessed other wars and conflicts in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Conclusion

The war has been transmitted in the poetry and so the realistic atmosphere of deadly warfare and the bloodshed on the battlefield but the eyewitness soldier-poets. The poets mentioned above contributed a lot to the development of War poetry. Some other minor war poets are I would get Kingsley Aims, John Beaching, Sydney Keys, and Vere Britain. War poetry contributed a lot to the development of the history of English literature.

War poetry is a powerful and enduring form of expression that can help us understand and empathize with the human condition in times of war. War poetry can also help us question and critique the causes and effects of war and violence. War poetry can also help us hope and strive for peace and justice in our world.

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Literature Notes

– Varsha Singh

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