Literature

Introduction

Walter Benjamin’s essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” has become one of the landmark essays in the field of Cultural theory. Its first edition was published in German in 1935.

This essay is part of a series of works by Benjamin on the relationships between art, culture, and politics, which were collected and edited after his death by his colleague Hannah Arendt in the text Illuminations. Written in Paris after fleeing Nazi Germany, the essay explores themes like Technology and Artistic Production, Depictions of Reality in Art, and Art as a Political Form.

About Walter Benjamin

Walter Benjamin was a German Jewish philosopher and cultural critic. He was little acclaim during his lifetime, he is now regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the twentieth century.

Benjamin made influential contributions to aesthetic theory, literary criticism, and historical materialism. He was associated with the Frankfurt School and also maintained formative friendships with thinkers such as playwright Bertolt Brecht and Kabbalah scholar Gershom Scholem.

Among Benjamin’s best-known works are the essays “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (1935) and “Theses on the Philosophy of History”.

Analysis Of The Essay

Benjamin opens his essay by stating his purpose in the text: to set out a series of concepts about the theory of art that will be “useful for the formulation of revolutionary demands in the politics of art” (218). Benjamin states that he will base his discussion not on classical Marxist predictions about how art will be made, but rather on how it is being made at the time of his writing. He asserts that typical modes of assessing artwork, such as “creativity and genius” (218), lend themselves to a Fascist interpretation of artwork. He wishes to indicate a series of concepts for evaluating art that are anti-Fascist.

According to Benjamin, art is valued in two separate ways: the cult, and the exhibition. The cult tradition features ceremonial objects meant to be valued simply for their existence, while exhibition value stems from a piece of art being on view. Contemporary art, Benjamin argues, is valued entirely for its exhibition value, and thus art is being created with entirely new functions and purposes. 

Ideas in Walter Benjamin’s “Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”

• Benjamin on Museums and their Role in Commodifying and Neutralizing Art

                   In a museum, art follows a particular logic. It forms a coherent flow with the other objects which are displayed and exhibited. Private museums for example serve as a symbol of the wealth and culture of the person who owns it.

                       Public museums also serve to showcase the abundance of culture of the particular country in which it is displayed. Collection and accumulation of works of art isn’t random but it serves to tell a story of state or private power.

The museum functions like a supermarket accumulating, organizing and displaying whole artistic movements as bit-sized consumable commodities so that the individual can gain some cultural points by knowing about them.

• Reproduction, Context, and the Artwork’s Aura

           While technological reproduction cannot reproduce the specific place and time in which the original existed, it can detach it from its original traditional context. The context is artificially multiplied. Viewing the work next to another work on a museum wall is a different experience from viewing it in the form of a sticker on a car or as part of a movie.

              Reproducibility touches upon the essential core of the artwork, its authenticity. For Benjamin ‘the unique value of the “authentic” work of art always has its basis in ritual’ and this basis in ritual is precisely what is threatened by reproduction, which can recontextualise the work of art, emancipating it from the chains of its rituals.

                Benjamin sees revolutionary potential in reproduction. It transposes the basis of the artwork from the ritual to the political. The mode of human perception is itself situated in history and in “our” history, it is characterized by a diminishing of the aura of the work of art. The aura for Benjamin is

 “A strange tissue of space and time: the unique apparition of a distance, however near it may be”.

• The Role of Photography

Regarding photography, the precursor to film, Benjamin says that rather than ask whether photography was considered art—which many critics did, at the time of photography’s invention—one should have instead asked whether photography changed the entire nature of art. This change to the fundamentals of art is at the heart of Benjamin’s contentions regarding both photography and now film.

             Kandinsky is one such example of this evolution of art. He is cited as the father of abstract paintings. “Abstract” however doesn’t fully capture what was going on. Art didn’t simply become non-concrete but it became so in order to escape the gaze of the camera. It started to look deeper for motives, new ways of expression, and new ways of speaking. It also entered into communication with itself, a communication that wasn’t readily accessible to the masses. This was in contrast with photography, which Benjamin asserts started to be evermore commodified with time.

• Fascism, capitalism, and the (De)Politicization of Art

              For Benjamin, art is fundamentally political and as such it should be situated in history. The ruling classes convey a notion of art that is tied to tradition and unchanging. It has a unique irreducible aura that can not be duplicated.

                 Through reproduction, the work of art is democratized. Reproduction threatened the values of the status quo which were based precisely on the unchangeability of the work of art, its persistence and ahistorical essence.

                   Benjamin also attacks futurism and its glorification of war and domination. Fascism forms a mythology of itself, relying on a reactionary imagination of values that are mobilized against any progressive forces, social or economic. Fascism relies on art which can be said to be objectively good because it reflects what fascists value. 

“The destruction of the aura is the mark of a perception whose sense of the sameness of things has grown to the point where even the singular, the unique, is divested of its uniqueness—by means of its reproduction.”

• Walter Benjamin on the Weight of History

           History is driven by its inner contradictions, the tension that exists in the very fabric of society: the tension between a worker and an owner, between the state and the masses, between art and the artist, between art’s history and its progress. Benjamin’s reading of history is a critique of those thinkers who have reduced historical materialism to a deterministic, physicalist theory by appropriating and magnifying its most vulgar aspects.

             In the Fascist conception of history, subjugation is glorified and hierarchies romanticized through art. Art itself becomes a tool, not of expression but one of exerting power from above. The basic structure of history as conceived by fascism is that of a harmonious past where people followed traditional moral values until the ‘other’ infiltrated said society and started ruining it from within. Fascism is ultimately a conspiracy theory that is entangled in its mysticism which can explain all events as following from the infiltration of the other.

                 On another hand, Benjamin’s claim that art has lost its original purpose, which was experiencing beauty and appreciating creativity, is proven right over the years. All forms of art in our age are used to serve various purposes other than the authentic ones. They are utilized to brainwash the masses into believing in new ideas, hating certain ethnic groups, or even buying specific products. Thus, art nowadays is a dangerous tool in the very wrong hands. People must be selective when it comes to exposing themself to any kind of artwork in our century.

         The essay concludes with Benjamin asserting that this destruction of the aura has ultimately alienated mankind from himself, so much so that “it can experience its own destruction as an aesthetic pleasure of the first order”.

Conclusion

Thus the essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” examines the fundamental change brought to the world of art by the twentieth century: the easy facilitation of reproduction. The value of artworks in the past was primarily centred upon their unique status.

The value of any piece of work was inextricably tied to the aura of its authenticity. With the ability to more easily reproduce works of art, art lost much of its ritualistic significance and its value shifted from the aura of authenticity to its value as a reproducible product.

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Introduction 

 The Victorian Period, identified as the period between 1832 to 1901, was named after the reigning monarch at the time, Queen Victoria of England. The Victorian period saw many changes and innovations which shaped the modern world. During this era, Britain was transformed from a predominantly rural, agricultural society into an urban, industrial one. 

The 19th century is considered by some to be the Golden Age of English Literature, especially for British novels. It was in the Victorian era that the novel became the leading literary genre in English. English writing from this era reflects the major transformations in most aspects of English life, from scientific, economic, and technological advances to changes in class structures and the role of religion in society.

Background Of Victorian Period

In the Victorian Period, the family was a central unit in Victorian society. The roles of each member of the family were clearly defined. As a result of this, women were strictly confined to domestic duties. They were expected to be austere, delicate, and deferent to their husbands, fathers, and brothers. They could not inherit property.

Education and literacy progressed a great deal during the Victorian Age. Since the printing technology was firmly established and easy to replicate, the number of publications was on the rise. Serialised publications became immensely popular as large groups of people, including the newly emerged middle class, subscribed to periodicals.

Science and medicine advanced significantly during the Victorian Period.

Characteristics/ Features of the Victorian Age and Literature or Victorian Novels

During this period there was progress in the field of science and arts. But this age was equally marked by its social unrest. A unique set of characteristics marked this literary era, reflecting the social, political, and cultural changes of the time.

Characteristics of Victorian Novels and Age

• Realism

• Morality and Didacticism

• Social Critique

• Industrialization and Its Discontents

• Psychological Character Development

• The Woman Question

• Narrative Experimentation

• The Supernatural and Gothic

Realism

Victorian literature often shows real people and real-life situations. Writers like Charles Dickens did not shy away from the grim parts of city life and the struggles of people experiencing poverty.

The stories reflected the enormous gap between the wealthy and the people with low incomes and the often harsh realities of living in an industrial society. The characters were complex, and their problems were those that ordinary people faced.

It made the stories relatable. The focus was on making everything seem as true to life as possible, from the dialogue to the settings. This realism helped to highlight the social issues of the time, pushing readers to see the need for change.

Morality and Didacticism

Victorian novels are often aimed at teaching readers right from wrong. The stories were like lessons on how to live a good life. The writers of that time believed books could make people better.

They filled their stories with clear morals to guide readers towards good behaviour. For example, Charles Dickens’s novel A Christmas Carol shows the character Ebenezer Scrooge undergoing a transformation from a miserly, selfish man to a generous and compassionate one.

The story highlights a moral lesson about the importance of kindness, empathy, and generosity, especially during the Christmas season. This teaching side of writing was significant back then.

Social Critique

Victorian literature often used stories to point out what was wrong with society. Authors like Thomas Hardy and Elizabeth Gaskell wrote about how unfair life was for people experiencing poverty, how children had to work, and how the class system stopped people from moving up in the world.

These books opened people’s eyes to the problems around them and made them think about change. The writers were not afraid to show the ugly side of their world, and they hoped their books would make people want to fix these issues.

This way, literature was not just for reading pleasure but also a mirror showing society its flaws, hoping to push for a better future for everyone. The following writers were doing this.

Charles Dickens: His novels, including “Oliver Twist” and “Hard Times,” highlight social injustices and the plight of people experiencing poverty in the Industrial Age.

Charlotte Brontë:  Her novel “Jane Eyre” addresses the constraints on women and class inequalities, offering insights into the status of governesses and the limited autonomy of women.

George Eliot: Through works like “Middlemarch,” she explores issues such as the role of women in society and the need for social reform.

Elizabeth Gaskell: Her novels, like “North and South,” examine the class divide and the impact of industrialization on workers and their communities.

Thomas Hardy: In novels such as “Tess of the d’Urbervilles,” Hardy critiques societal norms and the injustices faced by individuals, particularly women, in rural England.

Industrialization and Its Discontents

Victorian literature often reflected on the significant changes brought by industrialization. Factories sprang up, cities swelled, and life sped up. This new world made some people rich, but others suffered in poor working conditions and crowded slums.

Writers like Charles Dickens in “Hard Times” showed how this progress could harm people and the environment.

Psychological Character Development

Victorian novels often took readers deep into the minds of their characters. These characters grow and change throughout the story, making them feel like real people.

A character might start selfish and learn to be kind, or might be timid and become brave. Writers like Charlotte Brontë in “Jane Eyre” showed how a lonely girl becomes a strong woman.

George Eliot, in “Middlemarch,” traced the inner lives of a whole town, showing how people’s hopes and mistakes shape their lives.

These stories did not just tell what happened on the outside; they also explored what was going on inside people’s heads. This way, readers understand the characters’ thoughts and feelings, making the stories more meaningful.

The Woman’s Question

In Victorian times, writers started to question the role of women in society. They asked if women should have the same rights as men, like voting, owning property, or getting an education.

Novels from this time often show women trying to find their place in a world that limits them. For example, in “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen, the heroine, Elizabeth Bennet, fights for her right to marry for love, not just money.

Narrative Experimentation

Victorian writers were creative with how they told stories. They did not just go from start to finish. They mixed things up. Some used letters or diary entries to build the tale, like Bram Stoker in “Dracula.”

The Supernatural and Gothic

Victorian novels often mixed in spooky, mysterious elements. This style is called Gothic. It includes old, dark houses, ghosts, and strange happenings.

Books like “Dracula” by Bram Stoker had vampires and castles, which were creepy and exciting. These stories used the supernatural to explore human fears and the unknown.

Gothic tales were not just about frightening readers; they also made them think about life, death, and what it means to be human. They were popular because they were thrilling, but they made people consider big questions through their chilling adventures.

Victorian Poetry

Victorian Poetry just like the different branches of Victorian Literature, is found to be dominated by the social thought of the age. The victorian Period produced many great poets, whose poetry influenced the entire English Literature. These include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Robert Browning, and Alfred Tennyson.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Elizabeth Barrett Browning was an immensely talented poet who rivalled the poet Alfred Tennyson for Poet Laureate. She was introduced to many great poets in her lifetime, including Wordsworth and Coleridge. She was a staunch opposer of slavery, and she also aligned with the feminist beliefs of Mary Wollstonecraft. Elizabeth Barrett Browning later influenced many poets and writers, including Emily Dickinson and Edgar Allan Poe. Some of her most famous poems include:

• ‘The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point’ (1850).

• ‘How do I love thee? Let me count the ways (1850).

• Aurora Leigh (1857), a novel written in blank verse.

Robert Browning

The husband of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Robert Browning, wrote poems often featuring the dramatic monologue, giving them a conversation-like feel. He often exchanged poems with his wife, which were full of passion and affection for her. Some of Robert Browning’s popular poems include:

• ‘The Pied Piper of Hamelin’ (1842).

• ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ (1836).

• ‘The Laboratory’ (1844).

• ‘Love Among Ruins’ (1855).

Alfred Tennyson

Alfred Tennyson was a Poet Laureate from 1850 to 1892. He produced numerous poems during his lifetime, and one of his most famous poems is ‘Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington’ (1852). Some of Tennyson’s famous poetry includes:

• ‘Break Break Break’ (1842).

• ‘Godiva’ (1847).

• ‘Crossing the Bar’ (1889).

• ‘Tithonus’ (1859).

Novelists of the Victorian Period 

The increase in literacy during the Victorian Period meant that the popularity of literature produced during this period was heightened.  The Victorian Period also gave us the most widely read and beloved fictional detective of all time – Sherlock Holmes. While in the preceding Romantic period, poetry had been the dominant genre, it was the novel that was most important in the Victorian period

Charles Dicken

Charles Dickens is the most famous Victorian novelist. He is still one of the most popular and read authors of that time period.His first novel, The Pickwick Papers (1836), written when he was twenty-five, was an overnight success, and all his subsequent works sold extremely well. His most important works include Oliver Twist (1837-1838), Dombey and Son (1846-1848), Bleak House (1852-1853), Great Expectations (1860–1861), Little Dorrit (1855-1857), and Our Mutual Friend (1864-1865) The Old Curiosity Shop. 

William Thackeray

William Thackeray was Dickens’ great rival in the first half of Queen Victoria’s reign. With a similar style but a slightly more detached, acerbic and barbed satirical view of his characters, he also tended to depict a more middle-class society than Dickens did. He is best known for his novel Vanity Fair (1848), subtitled A Novel without a Hero, which is an example of a form popular in Victorian literature: a historical novel in which recent history is depicted.

Bronte Sisters

Anne, Charlotte and Emily Brontë produced notable works of the period, although these were not immediately appreciated by Victorian critics. Wuthering Heights (1847), Emily’s only work, is an example of Gothic Romanticism from a woman’s point of view, which examines class, myth, and gender. Jane Eyre (1847), by her sister Charlotte, is another major nineteenth-century novel that has gothic themes. Anne’s second novel The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), written in realistic rather than romantic style, is mainly considered to be the first sustained feminist novel.

George Eliot

George Eliot is one of the most eminent novelists of the Victorian Age. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), published The Mill on the Floss in 1860, and 1872 her most famous work Middlemarch. Like the Brontës she published under a masculine pseudonym. She wrote 7 great novels in her literary career. Among her collection of novels Adam Bede, Middlemarch,  The Mill on the Floss, Romala, and Silas Marner are world-famous.

Thomas Hardy 

In the later decades of the Victorian era, Thomas Hardy was the most important novelist. His works include Under the Greenwood Tree (1872), Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891), and Jude the Obscure (1895). Other significant novelists of this era were Elizabeth Gaskell (1810–1865), Anthony Trollope (1815–1882), George Meredith (1828-1909), and George Gissing (1857-1903).

Conclusion

Due to the progress of science and art, the Victorian age is also known as the modern period of progress and unrest. During this period, writers depicted the life of an individual and its connection to Victorian society. It was an era of material development with ideals of peace. This age was portrayed as a completely idealistic life. It was an idealistic age where great ideas like truth, justice, and brotherhood were emphasized by poets, essayists, and novelists of the time.

Are you struggling to keep up with your English Literature Coursework? Do you need detailed, customized English Literature Notes to help you better understand the texts you’re studying? “Look no further! Our customized paid notes will help you achieve your study goals quickly.

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Related Tags: Victorian period, victorian period literature, victorian period literature and culture, victorian period poets, victorian period era, victorian period in English literature