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Metaphysical Poetry in English Literature | Metaphysical Poets

Introduction

Metaphysical poetry is a genre of poetry that deals with deep spirituality, religion, etc. It is a highly intellectual form of poetry and presents the world to its readers in a different way. It asks questions that science can not answer. Metaphysical poetry prompts the readers to question their reality and existence. The word “Meta” means “After” so the literal translation of metaphysical is ‘After the Physical’. Basically, metaphysics deals with questions that can’t be explained by science. Such as –

Does God exist?
Is the soul eternal?
Is fate real?
Is our world real or a projection?
Is everything that happens already predetermined?

Some Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry

Metaphysical poetry talks about deep things, such as – Love, Soul, religion, etc.
The most important characteristic of Metaphysical poetry is the combination of feelings and thoughts.
Another characteristic of such poetry is that it is unclear. Every person will take something different out of the same poem based on their belief and understanding.
The unusual comparison of things in poetry is one of its unique and most intreating characteristics.
Another unique feature of this poetry is platonic love. It is non-romantic. It is spiritual love and is mainly for God.

In the book “Lives of the most Eminent English poet”, the author ‘Samuel Johnson’ made the first use of the word “Metaphysical Poetry”. He used the term Metaphysical poets to define a group of poets of the 17^th century. This group’s most prominent poets include:

John Donne
George Herbert
Andrew Marvel
Henry Vaughan
Abraham Cowley

John Donne

Donne was the most influential metaphysical poet. Most of his work centered around his personal relationship with spirituality. Donne’s Poem “The Good Morrow” uses wit or conceits in comparing the unconscious lovers and the seven sleepers who slept for two hundred years, between two lovers and two hemispheres. These odd comparisons are a signature characteristic of metaphysical poetry. Some of his metaphysical poetry include – The Flea, The Sun Rising, A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning and Death Be Not Proud.

George Herbert

George Herbert is the name that follows next to Donne. None of his poems were published during his lifetime. He is the saint of the Metaphysical School. Professor Palmer says about him “Herbert the first in English Poetry who spoke face to face with God.” Some of the great metaphysical poetry by Herbert are – The Collar, The Pulley, Easter Wings, and The Temple consist of over one hundred fifty poems.

Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell was a puritan Songster. In Marvell’s most recognized love poem “To His Coy Mistress” we see how the poet uses wit in its full force. His another poem that is included in Metaphysical poetry is – Winter Tale, Gallery, The Nymph, The Definition of Love, and Upon Appleton House

Henry Vaughan

Henry Vaughan was also a Metaphysical poet. He is perhaps the only 17th-century poet who was scorned in his early career but who was widely esteemed in his later life. He wrote “Selix Scintillans” which is a famous metaphysical poem.

Criticism

Johnson’s assessment of “metaphysical poetry” was not at all flattering:

The metaphysical poets were men of learning, and, to show their learning was their whole endeavor; but, unluckily resolving to show it in rhyme, instead of writing poetry, they only wrote verses, and, very often, such verses as stood the trial of the finger better than of the ear; for the modulation was so imperfect, that they were only found to be verses by counting the syllables… The most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together; nature and art are ransacked for illustrations, comparisons, and allusions; their learning instructs, and their subtlety surprises; but the reader commonly thinks his improvement dearly bought, and, though he sometimes admires, is seldom pleased.

Conclusion

Thus, Metaphysical poetry is to be read with an open mind. It is not purposely trying to convince readers to think in a certain way but it provides a new way of thinking. Besides these above-mentioned poets, there are several minor Metaphysical Poets such as – Richard Crashaw, Abraham Cowley, Richard Leigh, and several others. English Literature is highly indebted to these above-mentioned Metaphysical poets and their poetry.

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– Varsha Singh

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A River By A. K. Ramanujan Summary

Indian aesthetics, English Literature, Indian Literature, Literature, Poem Analysis, Poetry

Introduction

The poem “A River” is written by ‘A. K. Ramanujan’ is a great Indian English poet, professor, translator, playwright, and scholar. He wrote in both English and Kannada. He was awarded “Padma Shri” in 1976 and the “Sahitya Akademi” Award posthumously in 1999 for his literary works. Ramanujan published two volumes of Poems ‘The Striders’ and ‘The Relation’. The Poem “A River” appeared in ‘The Striders’ in 1966.

About A. K. Ramanujan

A.K. Ramanujan was a great Indian Poet, translator, and scholar of Indian Literature and linguistics. He was born in Mysore, Karnataka, to a Brahmin family that loved and encouraged learning. He was fluent in many languages including English, Kannada, and Tamil. Ramanujan was also awarded “Sahitya Akademi Award” posthumously in 1999 for “The Collected Poems”. His notable works include The Stories, Second Sight, A River, and Relations.

A River Poem Summary

“A River” poem is about a riven “Vaikai” which flows through the city of Madurai, which is situated in Tamil Nadu. It is a holy city, full of temples and poets. The poets of ancient times, as well as modern times, have written poems on this city and its temples. They have also written about the river and floods. ‘Ramanujan’ first talks about the beauty of the river and then tell how it killed people. The poem is divided into four stanzas and each stanza has a different line length.

In the first stanza poet says Madurai is the city of temples and many poets write about the beauty of the city, its temples, and its river which dries up making the sand visible. In the summer the water flows in small streams. As the water flows in small streams, the sand looks like the ‘ribs of humans’. In addition to the sand, there are straws and woman’s hair under the bridges – having rusting bars which obstruct the free flow of water. There are also wet stones which are shining and look like sleeping crocodiles and those which are dry seem to be like water buffaloes without hair relaxing in the sun.

However other poets have written only about two seasons that is summer and raining for describing their beauty. They have not brought to their verses what loss has been inflicted on the people because of the rainy seasons.

In the second stanza, the poet says that he has seen that incident when there was a flood. It also carried off three village houses, a pregnant woman, and a couple of cows which were named Gopi and Brinda. Poet further says, in the new poet and the old poets, no one ever talked about the pregnant woman.

The poet imagines that the twins were kicking at the while to escape but couldn’t and were ultimately drowned to death with their mother. The other poets never brought this tragic incident into their poems.

In the last stanza, according to the poet, the river is poetic and can be romanticized only once in a year, and then in just half an hour, it takes away 3 houses, a couple of cows, and a pregnant woman who was expecting twins having fair bodies and also was thinking of having diapers of different colours. So as to distinguish between them.

The last stanza thus compares the contrasts of the writing of the poet himself and another poet of his age. All the other poets try to praise the beauty of the river and on the other hand, the poet himself makes a balance between the beauty and the losses inflicted on the people by it.

Conclusion

Thus, the poem “A River” shows the insensitive attitude and the complete unconcern of the city poets, both the old and new, towards the tragic situation of human suffering and fatality.

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– Varsha Singh

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The Second Coming Critical Analysis

Literature, English Literature, Poem Analysis, Poetry

The Second Coming Poem

Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.

Surely some revelation is at hand;
Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
roubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
A shape with lion body and the head of a man,
A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?

Introduction

The Poem “The Second Coming” is composed by an Irish poet, ‘William Butler Yeats’, Who was known as one of the greatest dramatists, prose writers, and one of the foremost figures of 20th-century English Literature. The poem was written in 1919 and published in 1920. Yeats won several Literary Prizes in his literary career including Nobel Prize in 1923. He was much inspired by William Wordsworth, William Blake, John Keats, and many other poets of the Puritan age and Romantic age. The theme of his poem is – love, war nature, humanity, and relationship as well.

Theme Of The Poem

Violence, Anarchy, apocalypse, Christianity, prophecy, and meaninglessness are the major themes foregrounded in this poem.

Significance Of The Title

The title of the poem, “The Second Coming” has a thematic significance. The poem’s title refers to the second coming or the return of Jesus Christ in order to save humanity. The speaker of the poem describes the chaotic situation in the world and hopes for the second coming.

Analysis Of The Poem

The present poem “The Second Coming” is one of the most successful poems of W. B. Yeats. It is a non-rhyming poem. It is a poem of twenty-two lines expressing the opinion of the second incarnation. In the first stanza of the poem, the poet explains the state of complete disorder in Ireland. The poet says that time passes very fast and the wheel of time also moves fast. It changes rapidly. The poet further says that the falcon does not hear the falconer. Here falcon is a small bird of prey and the falconer is a trainer of the bird who trains the falcon in the art of preying or who gives the training of preying to the falcon. But now the falcon is not in the control of the trainer.

Here poet wants to say that the situation is out of control in Ireland. There is a state of anarchy everywhere in the country. Thus, it is a state of complete disorder. People do not respect laws and rules. Innocent and weak people are destroyed and killed while evil or wicked are worshipped. The good people are losing their faith and confidence while bad people are growing very fast. The poet says that evil people are being stronger and virtuous people are being weaker in the state of disorder in the country. Here the poet tries to show the time of the twentieth century in Ireland. Thus the poet presents the age here in an impressive way.

In the first stanza, the poet tells us about the state of anarchy spread in Ireland. Now he imagines the second incarnation. The poet has a strong belief that the second incarnation of God can save this Earth from sin. The poet says that when sins are on its top then God comes on the earth to save mankind. The violence has crossed its limit and it is intolerable for people. So now it is the correct time for the coming of God on Earth. He says that God would appear on Earth Very Soon.

The poet has a firm belief that a special miracle is about to happen very soon. The second incarnation of God surely would appear on the earth. The poet imagines that the second incarnation of God would have a strange shape. It would have the head of a man and the body of a lion and would appear first in the desert. His shine would be unbearable like the shine of the sun.

It is a huge shape having an angry and colorful sight. The poet gives the name Sphinx to the huge body of the combination of man and beast. The poet says that now there is a state of anarchy everywhere and sin has reached its top and Sphinx is now awake after the sleep of twenty Centuries. He is outraged now.

It seems as if the poet is influenced by Hindu philosophy because the incarnation of God ‘Narsimha’ resembles the imagination of the poem. As Jesus Christ took birth on the earth to save mankind. Like that the second incarnation of God also would appear on the earth to save Mankind.

Conclusion

The poem expresses ‘W. B. Yeats‘ opinion on the state of anarchy in Ireland and his belief in the coming of a second incarnation of God to save humanity from sin. The poem is an impressive representation of the time and situation in Ireland during the twentieth century and Yeats’ belief in the power of a higher being to save humanity.

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Samson Agonistes Summary and Analysis

Literature, Analysis, English Literature, Summary

Introduction

“Samson Agonistes” is a closet drama published in 1671 by English poet and political activist ‘John Milton’. It was published alongside Milton’s Paradise Regained, a poem that follows his most famous work the epic ‘Paradise Lost’. Milton declared Samson agonistes is a tragedy written in the style of ancient Greek drama. The genre of closet drama denotes plays not written for the stage. It is written in blank verse.

About the Poet

John Milton the poet of Samson Agonistes was an English poet and man of letters commonly considered “One of the preeminent writers in the English Language”. One of the most knowledgeable men of his time he was fluent in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, writing his works in all of these languages. Among his world-famous works included – Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, Areopagitica, and Lycidas. He is described as the “greatest English author” by biographer ‘William Hayley’. Poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Thomas Hardy were much influenced by John Milton.

The setting of the Play

The play takes place in a prison in Gaza, where Samson is enslaved by Philistines who have also gouged out his eyes and blinded him.

The theme of “Samson Agonists”

The play Samson Agonists has several themes, some of which are major themes – Blindness, Temptation, Violence, the commitment to God, Politics, and Misogyny.

About the Samson Agonists Play

The play is based on the Story of Samson from the biblical Book of Judges, a son of Israel who was endowed with unparalleled strength. When Samson marries his second wife, the Philistine Delilah, she betrays him to cut his hair while he sleeps. The play focuses on the final of Samson’s life after he has been betrayed by his wife and lost his superhuman strength.

Samson belongs to Israel and helps the Israel people from any trouble with his supernatural power. Philistine often attacks Israel but Samson protected them. Philistine people make plans to defeat Samson. They send Delilah, the most beautiful girl of Philistine to entrap Samson. Delilah succeeds in her plan and Samson get agrees to marry Delilah. After marriage, once Delilah comes to know that all the power of Samson is in his hair.

So Delilah makes a plan and sends a servant to cut his while he sleeps. When Samson losses all his power then he has been captured by the Philistines and put into a prison in Gaza and his eyes are cut out. Now in prison, Samson laments how he was once a great warrior and how he has been reduced to a blind prisoner. He is upset that he shared the secret of his strength with Delilah who betrayed him.

Now in Gaza, Chorus comes to meet Samson. The Chorus is comprised of Samson’s admirers and friends. He explains that before he met Delilah, he married a Philistine because God told him that an alliance with Philistines would help him in his mission to defend the Israelites Samson and Chorus both agree that if the Israelites had sent troops to support him, they would have been freed.

Manoah, Samson’s father, arrives and is stunned to see his son in his current state. Samson explains to his father that it is his own fault for telling Delilah the secret of his strength. Samson has no wish for a long life – he seeks only God’s forgiveness for being prideful. Manoah does not want Samson to stay in Prison and plans to bribe an official to release Samson.

Delilah arrives and cries over Samson’s state. She apologizes and offers to help, but Samson, no longer trusting her, just asks her to leave. She tells him that the Philistine will praise her through the generations, and leaves. Samson’s next visitor is “Harapha”. Harapha claims that Samson’s strength is sourced from magic, but Samson insists that it is from the Israelite’s God. Harapha leaves and an officer arrives to bring Samson to the festival to prove Dogon’s greatness but Samson refuses. But when the second officer arrives, Samson agrees to go. However, he soon feels a change within himself and agrees to go with the messenger.

Manoa returns just in time to hear what Samson has done, he killed every Philistine, and himself, by destroying two large pillars and collapsing the entire structure of the theatre where the celebration was held. Manoa and the Chorus lament Samson’s death but celebrate his heroism.

“Those who die for others live forever.”

In this way, Samson Agonistes set a great Sacrifice by giving up his life but eliminating his rivals.

Thus, We can say Samson Agonistes is one of the greatest Drama of John Milton.

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Renaissance Period In English Literature 1500 to 1660

Literature, English Literature, Essay, Indian Literature

Introduction

Renaissance Period is one of the most important periods in English literature. So far as the ‘Renaissance Period’ is concerned it began in 1453, but its effect on English life and literature was felt after 1500. For this reason, it is generally accepted that the renaissance period was at the beginning of the 16^th century and continued till the Restoration period. It is a clear line between the middle and the modern English literature period.

The word Renaissance is derived from the Italian ‘Renescetia’ means rebirth. The French historian “Jules Michelet” used Renaissance for the first time. Italy was the cradle of the Renaissance. It began in Italy in the 14th Century and ended in the mid-seventeenth century. This period of 160 years is subdivided into two ages according to the ages:-

Elizabethan Age (1500 to 1620)
The Puritan Age (1620 to 1660)

The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)

This age is named after Queen ‘Elizabeth I’ who reigned over England from 1558 to 1603. This is the most glorious age of English literature. With the accession of Queen Elizabeth I, dynastic problems, and political chaos come to an end. Geographical and astronomical discoveries brought unlimited fortune during this period. Renaissance that had started earlier was now very strongly felt in England.

Major writers and Their Major works

Thomas More – His famous works are ‘Utopia’ and it was originally written in Latin.

Edmund Spenser – He is called the poet of the poet because after his death many later English poets followed his art of Poetry. His famous work is the Faerie Queen’s and ‘The Shepherd’s Calendar’.

Thomas Kyd – He is one of the poets in the ‘group of University Wits’. His famous work is ‘The Spanish Tragedy’.

Sir Philip Sidney – He penned several major works including ‘Astrophel and Stella’, ‘Arcadia’ and ‘The Defense of Poesy’. ‘Advancement of Learning’.

University Wits: – It is the group of a dramatist who wrote and performed in London towards the end of the 16^th century. They are called university wits because they were the witty students of ‘Cambridge or Oxford’. Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, Thomas Nashe, Thomas Lodge, George Peele, and Thomas Kyd.

Christopher Marlowe – ‘Tamburlaine the Great’, ‘Dr. Faustus, ‘The Jew of Malta’ and ‘Edward II’ are his famous work.

William Shakespeare – Shakespeare was known as ‘England’s National Poet’ and ‘Bard of Avon’. He wrote 37 plays and 154 sonnets. His famous works are – Henry VI (Part 1, 2, 3), Richard III, Love’s Labour’s Last, Romeo and Julies, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Richard II, Henry IV (Part 1, 2), Henry V, The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado about Nothing, Julius Caesar, As you like it, Hamlet Twelfth Night, Othello Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear.

Ben Johnson – He wrote in a time when romanticism was the main mode of expression. He is called a neo-classical ruler of drame. ‘Every Man in his Humour’, ‘Volpone’, ‘The Silent Women’, and ‘The Alchemist’ is his famous work.

John Webster – John Webster wrote ‘The White Devil’ and ‘The Duchess Of Malfi’.

Literary Features of the period

The Elizabethan Age is regarded as the Golden Age in the history of English Literature. The Renaissance brought Ancient Greek and Roman wisdom to England. The social life of England was marked by a strong national spirit, Humanism, religious broadmindedness, scientific progress, social content, and intellectual progress. All these aspects of social life are reflected in the writing of this period.

Puritan Age

The Puritan age was named after the Puritan Movement in England in the 17^th century. Puritans were a group of English-speaking Protestants who were dissatisfied with the religious reformation movement carried out during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. This age is also known as the ‘Age of Milton’, because the greatest literary figure ‘John Milton’ was a Puritan. This period is remarkable for the decay of drama and the closing of the theatres in 1642 gave a jolt to the development of drama.

Puritan Poetry also called Jacobean and Caroline poetry during the reigns of James. I and Charles I respectively can be divided into three Pars –

Poetry of School of Spencer
Poetry of Metaphysical School
Poetry of the Cavalier poet

Poetry of School of Spencer

The Spenserians were followers of Spencer. They considered Spencer as their master. ‘Phineas Fletcher’, ‘Giles Fletcher’, ‘William Browne’, and ‘Drummond’ are the poet of this age.

Poetry of Metaphysical School

The term metaphysical may be applied to any poetry, that deals with spiritual or philosophical matters. Among these poets “John Donne” is the most notable. Other Metaphysical poets were – ‘George Hertbert’, Richard Crawshaw’, Henry Vaughan’, Thomas Carew’, ‘Abraham Cowley’, and ‘Andrew Marvell’. The term “Metaphysical Poets” was first used by Samuel Johnson.

Poetry Of The Cavalier Poet

The Cavalier Poets wrote in the 17^th century and supported king Charles I. These poets opposed Metaphysical Poetry. The best known of Cavalier poets are – ‘Robert Herrick’, ‘Richard Lovelace’, ‘Thomas Carew’ and ‘Sir John Suckling’.

Conclusion

Thus, Renaissance Period ended with the beginning of the Restoration period. It has had a great effect on the development of English Literature. It was an important movement that illuminated the whole of English literature. ‘Paradise Lost’ is the last great triumph of the Renaissance.

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